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Cognitive Styles
Another way of describing differences in students is based on the idea that people have different ways of learning. Research in this area has mushroomed in the past several years, producing descriptions of styles based on a variety of organizing ideas. A few of the dominant schemes are described below.Field Independence & Field Dependence
Based on studies on perception, Witkin and Moore (1975) describe a central differentiating characteristic of learners based on the way in which they handle information in context. They describe field independent students as those who try to analyze things into component parts and like to work independently. Field independent students are able to set their own learning goals and prefer the freedom to participate in setting their assignments. They like to work with abstract ideas and prefer to work with a minimum of structure and guidance. Witkin and Moore call learners who perceive in holistic fashion field dependent learners. These individuals rely on external stimuli in approaching a task and have a much more difficult time separating the individual parts within a whole. These students tend to be more social in their interests and like teachers to structure classroom goals for them. They prefer group work and student discussion in class.Kolb's Learning Styles
David Kolb (1981) posits that four main processes are used in learning:- Concrete experience: learning through direct involvement in a new experience
- Reflective observation: learning through watching others or through thinking about our own experiences or those of others
- Abstract conceptualization: learning by creating concepts and theories to describe and explain our observations
- Active experimentation: learning by using the theories and concepts we have derived to solve problems and make decisions
He states that most people apply these four processes in cyclical fashion as they learn, but that each person engages in some activities more than others. Depending on these preferences, he describes four learning styles:
Convergers rely most on abstract conceptualizing and active experimenting. They like to find specific, concrete answers and move quickly to solution. They are relatively unemotional and prefer dealing with things rather than with people. Convergers often specialize in the physical sciences or engineering. They prefer learning tasks that have specific answers.
Assimilators rely most on abstract conceptualizing and reflective observation. They like to integrate ideas and are more interested in theoretical concerns than in applications. Assimilators tend to gravitate toward math and the physical sciences and like research and planning. They prefer learning tasks that call for them to integrate material.
Divergers rely on concrete experience and reflective observation. They like to generate many ideas and enjoy working with people. They often are attracted to such fields as counseling and consulting. Divergers enjoy class discussion and working in groups.
Accommodators rely on concrete experience and active experimentation. They take risks, are action oriented, like new experiences, and are very adaptable in new situations. They prefer a hands-on approach and often are attracted to technical or business fields, such as marketing and sales.
Learning Modalities
Several researchers have focused on the extent to which sensory receptors influence learning. In general, they describe the following different types of learners:- Auditory learners prefer to learn by listening. Lecturing is the teaching approach that works best for them.
- Visual learners prefer print material. They learn best by reading or responding to visual cues, such as the chalkboard or overhead transparencies.
- Tactile learners like to manipulate objects. Laboratory or hands-on methods of learning are most appropriate for them.
- Kinesthetic or whole body learners like to learn through experiential activities. They prefer simulations, exploratory activities, and problem-solving.
Implications for Teaching
As with all of the literature on learning styles, the emphasis with sensory modality preferences is not placed solely on trying to match learning and teaching styles, but on extending the strengths of learners and expanding their range of modalities. A teacher can accomplish this by using a range of activities and having students complete assignments in a variety of formats.Cognitive Styles and Culture
Although learning style is not directly related to race and gender, there are research studies that suggest some patterns (Anderson & Adams, 1992). For example, Irvine and York (1995), in a review of the extensive published research findings on learning styles and culturally diverse students, found that African American, Native American, and Hispanic students often have a learning style referred to as field dependent learners (some writers prefer to use the terms relational, field sensitive, or global learners). This suggests that these students achieve best when working in groups on verbal tasks. Research further indicates that they learn more easily those materials that have humor, social content, and are characterized by the use of imagination. In learning situations, they are most sensitive to the opinions of others. This particular learning style often conflicts with the traditional school environment, which tends to favor individual and competitive learning processes. In contrast, many European American men and Asian American students are field independent learners. Therefore, they tend to perform better on analytical tasks, learn more easily material that is inanimate and impersonal, and not be greatly affected by the opinion of others as they perform (Anderson, 1988). previous page |
