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Women's Development
Gilligan (1982) and Belenky et al. (1986), aware that the sample for Perry's research was largely male, undertook research on female moral and cognitive development and found different patterns in their sample of women. Belenky and her co-authors described an initial level of silence in which women feel powerless and intimidated by male authority and forms of argumentation. Following this are four more levels:
- Received knowledge. Women at this level are listening to others around them and relying on the voices of authority. They see things dualistically as did the participants in this stage in Perry's study, but identify less with the authority figures. They regard the multiple perspectives they read and hear as increasingly confusing and hard to reconcile.
- Subjective knowledge. Dissatisfied with received knowledge, they turn to their inner voices and trust their own feelings and thoughts at this level. They believe that all opinions are equally valid and that first-hand experience is the only valid route to knowing.
- Procedural knowledge. At this level, women again listen to outside voices, but this time, they are listening to how to think rather than what to think. They are interested in and aware of multiple perspectives. Belenky et al. borrow from Gilligan, who distinguishes between two kinds of procedural knowledge: separate knowing that relies on analysis, dispassion, and argument; and connected knowing that is holistic in nature, joining emotion with reason and seeking understanding and interconnections among perspectives. Even connected knowers, however, experience a sense of alienation at this stage since their knowledge is so directed toward the other.
- Constructed knowledge. At this level, women are able to integrate their own voices with those of others. They are active builders of a knowledge base and see that "All knowledge is constructed and the knower is an intimate part of the known" (Belenky et al., p. 137).
Although Gilligan and Belenky and her coauthors make the point that given types of cognitive development are not exclusively male or female, they do note that the above pattern is found more in women than men.
Another researcher, Baxter-Magolda (1992) describes stages that have similarities with those found by Belenky and her coauthors. Baxter-Magolda describes four levels of knowing (absolute,
transitional, independent, and contextual). Within each of these levels, she distinguishes two contrasting approaches, which are gender-related. These are the interpersonal approach (found more commonly in women) and the impersonal approach (more characteristic of men). Interpersonal learners are more concerned than impersonal learners with sharing ideas (rather than debating them), with seeking rapport with the teacher (rather than being challenged by the teacher), with expecting to be evaluated as an individual (rather than receiving standard treatment), and with using personal judgment (rather than logic and research) to resolve uncertainty. Baxter-Magolda asserts that although men and women pass through similar stages at similar rates in developing cognitive complexity, their approaches toward knowledge tend to be different.
The implications for teaching of the research on cognition and gender include the importance of recognizing that women may often feel overwhelmed and silenced by a discourse style that is not comfortable to them; that they may want to trust personal judgment, instincts, and emotions as valid contributions to arriving at a position; and that they may withdraw from argumentation and forced analysis as hostile or unproductive forms of activity. Instructors can make sure that all students have a voice in class by moderating discussion to ensure equal levels of participation and encouragement and providing opportunities for personal forms of expression in papers and projects. Rowe (1986) and Mansfield (1996) provide examples of how an instructor's attention to wait time can ensure gender equity in the classroom.
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