At The Ohio State University, international faculty and teaching associates (TAs) are a highly valued part of the academic community. However, we know that the challenges you face as teachers in U.S. college classrooms can be daunting. These sections of Teaching @ Ohio State are tailored specifically to the needs of new international instructors. Even if you have been teaching at Ohio State or in the U.S. for some time, you may find something useful in this section.
Ideas presented in these chapters come from contributors' experiences, the research literature on college and university teaching and professional development, collaboration with colleagues at similar research universities, and conversations with experienced international instructors. This information is intended to supplement other portions of Teaching @ Ohio State. There are four sections for international instructors:
The chapter on Communication Skills and Strategies includes additional links to the following supplemental material:
We hope that you find these sections helpful, and that you enjoy your time as teachers and learners at Ohio State. If you have any questions that remain unanswered, please e-mail us.
An understanding of culture can help you develop important skills to enhance your ability to teach in U.S. classrooms. As you fulfill your responsibilities as an international faculty member or teaching associate, you will learn and adopt some of the culture of this country, both in and out of the classroom. You will find that in some ways, U.S. culture is very similar to your own, while in other ways, there are fundamental differences between this country and your home. Reflecting on and understanding these similarities and differences are important. Doing so will help you have more accurate expectations of your students and of your interactions with them.
In contrast to the equally present biological influences on human thought, feeling, and action, a fundamental feature of culture is that it is learned. This learning takes place from the first moments of life, as humans begin to be socialized into the ways of their people. Humans learn the words of objects, such as "ball" and "desk," as well as the abstract objects that go with certain words, such as "love" and "authority." While this process is easy to observe in the very young, socialization is a lifelong process.
Humans experience socialization every time they enter a new social situation. For example, first-year college students must learn a new set of values, beliefs, and attitudes that may differ from those to which they had previously been accustomed. It is likely that you also will be exposed to new values and attitudes, while you gain experience teaching in U.S. college classrooms.
Through communication and imitation, culture is reproduced across time and space. For example, first-year college students come to share the pre-existing culture of the university they attend. In time, you will come to share a sense of the culture at Ohio State. Culture also changes, however, and people must continuously adapt to new cultural knowledge.
Further, because people must learn new systems of knowledge when they enter new situations, most people are potentially multicultural (Cushner & Brislin, 1996). Even within a single dominant culture, all humans are socialized by multiple groups such as the family, school, and workplace, as well as along many sub-cultural lines such as gender, ethnicity, social class, and religion. The norms, values, and beliefs experienced in the family are likely to be somewhat different from those experienced at the workplace. Thus, all people are likely to have prior experience moving between social realities and their attendant sets of meanings. That experience can serve as a practical foundation for cross-cultural interaction by reminding us how important context is in shaping our understanding. Behavior that is acceptable in one's own private home, for example, may not be acceptable at work.
Both work and school are places where the values, beliefs, and expectations of a culture are transmitted to members of a society. As someone whose workplace is school, you are in a particularly fertile position for understanding the behavior of others within a larger cultural context. Conflicts in the classroom may arise as a result of misunderstanding these differences.
Confusion and conflict can arise among people engaging in cross-cultural interaction. One reason is that the culture one is born into is generally taken for granted as reality. The anthropological term "ethnocentrism" refers to the way that people's central stance toward reality is shaped by their social group. While it is not the only source of cross-cultural challenge, understanding the implications of ethnocentrism may help facilitate cultural adjustment and ease the experience of "culture shock".
To the extent that people remain unaware of the pervasiveness of ethnocentrism, they are likely to engage in it. It is useful to think of culture as a lens filtering individual perceptions and allowing people to function in the world. Because the cultural filter is always on, it is easy to forget about it and to assume a more direct relationship between perceptions and objective reality. Individual experience is always inherently limited to some degree, however, and one can therefore make false assumptions about others' behavior and ways. Such false assumptions can lead to misunderstandings and conflict. If a cross-cultural interaction leaves you feeling uncomfortable, it is likely that a cultural misunderstanding has occurred.
Effective teaching requires that you attempt to understand your students in the context of their culture, just as they should make efforts to understand your background. You will begin to be more sensitive to the notion that people from the United States have many similarities and differences. At the same time you may find that you can help U.S. students to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between individuals from your country.
A goal of Teaching @ Ohio State is to provide you with ideas and alternatives for interaction in the U.S. classroom. It may be helpful for your adjustment to living and working in the United States if you think about U.S. culture as a set of knowledge and skills to be learned. Just as there may be several equations you can use to solve problems in math, there are many different approaches to the situations you will encounter in interacting with your students, peers, and professors. The more you know about the culture of the United States and the more experience you gain, the more sophisticated your approach to U.S. life will become.
Mastering new knowledge and skills can require patient and persistent effort. If you are faced with a particularly troubling situation, either in or out of the classroom, try if possible to observe how others act in such situations. If it is a classroom problem, you may want to ask other successful instructors if you can observe their classes or what they would do. You could also ask a friend from the United States what the situation means in the context of the U.S. culture and how he or she would have handled it. You may want to visualize the situation and plan how you would like to handle it, explaining to your U.S. friend how you think other people will respond to you. Once you have identified the new behavior, such as inviting students to use your office hours or to ask questions during lectures, try it out and see if it works for you. If the new behavior works well, think about whether you can generalize from it and use it in other situations. If the new behavior does not work well, investigate other culturally appropriate options.
You may want to take an analytical approach. That is, continually attempt to ask the question, "Why?" For example, why is it that Americans tend to be time conscious? Why is it that Americans feel uncomfortable with silence? Why do American students interrupt professors in class? Identify as accurately as possible your own assumptions about people, their ideas and behavior, and the clashes that can occur. Break those assumptions down, and work to rebuild them in light of what you are learning about U.S. culture.
Feel free to ask for clarification of people's expectations of you, as well as to articulate your expectations of others. Keeping your sense of humor, assuming that people have good intentions, talking to other international students as well as American colleagues, and focusing on the positive aspects of the adjustment process are also helpful.
Ideally, learning how to interact smoothly in another culture would be immediate and obvious. In reality, adjusting to the diversity and variations within different cultures will take time and patience. An adjustment period of culture shock is common among people visiting or living in a new place. The United States is a very diverse society--with respect to ethnicity, race, religion, socioeconomic status, language, customs, backgrounds, interests, and the like--and that may cause renewed culture shock, even after you have been in the country for many years.
All humans experience some form of culture shock upon arriving in a new environment. The intensity of the experience, however, will vary for each person. Entering a new country as a faculty member or TA, especially for the first time, means a sudden loss of the comfort and familiarity of home. For some of you, culture shock is simply the minor difficulty encountered during your stay in the United States, such as learning to drive on the right-hand side of the road. For others, separation from your home, family, and culture combine to create a deeply felt "shock." The impact of culture shock on your life could be influenced by the way you confront your new environment, your interpersonal communication skills, your emotional well-being, and your willingness to learn new behaviors or modify existing habits, as well as your understanding of change as a growth experience.
Casse (1981) identifies three stages of culture shock: newness, distress, and integration. Not everyone will experience these stages, and not everyone will experience them in the same order. You may go through this process several times, on an emotional roller coaster ranging from exciting highs to depressing lows, before you fully adjust to living and working in the United States.
Newness, the first stage, described as elation and excitement, is sometimes called "the honeymoon stage." Everything seems exciting, and the experience seems like a big adventure. People seem friendly and helpful. You might be preoccupied with looking for similarities between the new culture and your home culture. The new sights and sounds will seem interesting and exotic and are generally viewed as positive.
Sometimes newness can give way to the second stage, distress. A period of frustration, disorientation, or depression may set in. You may observe more and more unexplainable and disturbing differences. You may feel mildly uncomfortable or embarrassed for a short time, or you may feel enraged, helpless, isolated, depressed, and homesick. You may become hostile and fearful about your health and welfare, and you may withdraw from participation in the new language and culture. This response is normal and usually passes with more time and experience. Useful resources and strategies for coping can be found in Second Language Anxiety and Coping Strategies.
After some time, effort, patience, and persistence, however, most people are able to integrate. A sense of humor about your experience is central to this process, and it can give you a renewed interest in the culture and the people. Through increased exposure, you will gain a better understanding of the new culture and figure out which aspects are most comfortable for you. During this period, you are likely to find your own personal balance between the cultural ways learned in your home culture and the cultural ways learned in the United States.
Culture shock is, to some degree, inevitable. Some situations can be frustrating, so it is helpful to see each encounter as a learning experience and a chance for personal and professional growth and development. Just knowing that culture shock exists, that your feelings are normal and natural, and that you are not alone, can go a long way toward helping you adjust. Familiarizing yourself with cultural similarities and differences helps, too.
This chapter about culture and cultural adjustment is meant to stimulate your thinking about the cultural environment and how it may affect you and your teaching experience at Ohio State. Culture exerts an often invisible influence on people's thoughts, feelings, and actions. Knowledge and experience combined with patient and persistent effort can facilitate your adjustment. Still, many people experience the emotional turbulence of culture shock. Awareness of that phenomenon can help mediate its effects.
As described above, socialization is an ongoing process. The university in general (and Ohio State in particular) is characterized by a specific culture, one for which U.S. students and international students are differently prepared. Some of them may be undergoing their own culture shock while attending your classes. An understanding of key features of U.S. academic culture [LINK italicized words to chapter entitled "US Academic Culture"] may help you adjust. It may also help you help your students adjust.
Casse, P. (1981). Training for the cross-cultural mind: A handbook for cross-cultural trainers and consultants. Washington, DC: Society for Intercultural Education, Training, and Research.
Cushner, K., & Brislin, R. W. (1996). Intercultural interactions: A practical guide. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
This chapter presents information about some features of U.S. academic culture that may be relevant to your experiences as a faculty member or TA at The Ohio State University. Knowledge about the place of education in U.S. culture, students' preparation for higher education, the structure of the university, values and beliefs, statuses and role expectations, and attitudes and notions of appropriate behavior can help you adjust to teaching in the U.S. college classroom. The more you are exposed to Ohio State's academic culture, the more easily you will adjust to your new environment.
The following sections are designed to help you, but it is important to keep in mind that these are generalizations. You will find that individual students will vary somewhat from the overall academic culture and that they change over the course of their education. It is best to remain flexible in your approach.
Higher education is available in private (both secular and religiously affiliated) and public (state-supported) institutions. The enrollment of students in institutions of higher education varies widely. Some enroll as many as 50,000 students, while others admit fewer than 1,000 students. Because postsecondary institutions in the United States are not regulated or managed by the federal government, their philosophies, policies, and practices vary considerably (National Association for Foreign Student Affairs, 1996).
Many international instructors are amazed at what seems to be the poor preparation of college students in the United States, and it may be tempting to make comparisons with students in your home country. It is important to recognize, however, that while U.S. students may have had a less rigorous exposure to certain academic areas, they are no less intelligent. Compared to many other countries, specialization occurs at a much later age in the United States, and even at the university level, exposure to a wide range of academic disciplines is required. Upper-division university courses in the United States can be more demanding than those in some other countries, and many juniors and seniors are accustomed to the challenges these classes offer. Upper-division students (juniors and seniors) tend to have the level of specialized knowledge about the field that you might expect.
If you are teaching a course that students are required to take, especially for a General Education Curriculum (GEC) requirement, you will probably encounter students who do not want to be in the course, or who do not approach it very seriously. Students in electives will often be more enthusiastic because they were given the choice of whether or not to enroll in the class. Just as upper-division students are more likely to be prepared and knowledgeable, they are also more likely to be motivated. In general, those students who are least motivated are likely to be first-year students in required courses.
Traditionally, at the completion of the GEC requirements (which usually takes at least two years), students are asked to choose a specific program of study or "major" on which to concentrate for the remainder of their undergraduate studies. More commonly, students declare a major early on and take courses in their prospective majors at the same time as they fulfill GEC requirements. A student majoring in chemical engineering, for example, may also be enrolled in a GEC English literature course. Similarly, a sociology major may be taking a GEC algebra course.
Many undergraduate, introductory-level courses (GEC requirements, such as introductory biology, chemistry, psychology, and sociology) have large sections. Enrollment in these courses varies, and specific sections can range from 100 to 700 students each quarter. There are even some in the thousands. In order to help facilitate teacher-student interaction, many of these large introductory-level courses are accompanied by smaller laboratory or recitation sections which are taught by TAs.
In these sections, TAs are expected to facilitate discussion around topics covered by the course supervisor during lecture, or (in the case of a laboratory section) lead active demonstrations or guide short experiments. In introductory-level courses with low enrollment, TAs may have full responsibility for the class. A more detailed discussion of teaching responsibilities and roles can be found in Contexts for Teaching.
Colleges and universities in the United States use a credit system in which each course is allotted a specific number of "credit hours," representing the number of hours the student spends in class each week. At Ohio State, a normal course load for an undergraduate is 12 to 15 credit hours per quarter, or the equivalent of 4 to 5 courses. This means that students will be in the classroom between 12 to 15 hours a week, or more if they take courses requiring labs or studio work. Graduate students usually take 10 to 12 credit hours per quarter.
A student's performance in a course is evaluated by the course instructor or TA. At Ohio State, the most commonly used system consists of letter grades (A, B, C, D, E), which may be further distinguished by either a + or -. The grading system at Ohio State, like many other colleges and universities, is based on a four-point scale. Grade "A" is 4 points, grade "B" is 3 points, grade "C" is 2 points, grade "D" is 1 point, and grade "E" is 0 points. Credit hours are multiplied by the grades to determine a student's "grade-point average" (GPA). For more information on grades, see Evaluating Learning.
That said, some U.S. students are not overly concerned with their grades. While many students here are quite interested in their classes and want to do well, some students are not particularly motivated to study. For some, competing responsibilities necessitate students' placing school toward the bottom of their list of priorities. For others, attendance at the university is viewed as more of a social learning experience. It is important to recognize that these factors can shape your students' motivation in ways that are beyond your control.
Students at all levels may have families and jobs, as well as full-time school responsibilities. Others are finding themselves away from home for the first time and are enjoying their new freedom from parental rules, as well as dealing with feelings of loss, anxiety, and homesickness. They may also be having problems adjusting, such as sharing housing accommodations with strangers, being in a new environment, and meeting all of their new academic responsibilities. In short, they may be going through a culture shock similar to what you may be feeling! There will be issues in some students' lives that have nothing to do with you or the class material, that prevent them from making your class or their grades a priority.
You are likely to have certain academic standards of success for yourself that your students may not share. Students have varying levels of abilities, interests, and priorities that will influence their motivation in your class. Keeping in mind these individual differences will help you accommodate your students' needs without blaming yourself for "failing" to inspire each of your students to learn.
In many countries, only a very small minority of the population is able to attend a university and these students are generally very committed to the academic enterprise. In the United States during the last 50 years, great efforts have made access to higher education more widely available. Admission to Ohio State is "highly selective" and applicants must have performed quite well both in high school and on one of the standard admissions exams. However, many students--regardless of their intelligence or prior preparation--attend college because it is the expected next step after high school. Also, it is important to remember that U.S. student culture values collegiate social life and "relevance" (practical application of knowledge in support of career goals) at least as much as scholarship for its own sake. Individual students will shift their primary focus from one of these values to another at various times in their college career and in different contexts. For more information about students at Ohio State, see Who Students Are.
These four different levels are not always clear. Many courses' enrollment may include a mixture of students (freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors--as well as graduate students from other disciplines), each of whom is taking the class for different reasons. Additionally, many students earn an associate degree by completing their first two years of college at a junior or community college, and then transfer to a four-year college or university like Ohio State as a junior to complete the remaining years required for a baccalaureate degree.
Students in U.S. college classrooms are encouraged to have independent opinions about their courses, and many of them may hold a point of view about the course material that differs from the teacher's. Students expect to be recognized as individuals but not singled out or asked to speak for their group (based on race, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, etc.). At the same time, students may relate course material to their life experiences. They will want to be appreciated for their special thoughts and ideas.
Although U.S. professors are to be treated with respect, they are not regarded as absolute authorities who cannot be questioned, doubted, or challenged. Student involvement is strongly encouraged in the teaching and learning process. To earn respect, you may be expected to teach like a university teacher in the United States (National Association for Foreign Student Affairs, 1996). Most students do not expect you to behave like an American, however, so do not try too hard to "fit in." A better approach may be to present your international status as an educational benefit. In this time of ever-increasing cross-cultural contact, students who have had experience interacting with people from different cultures will be at an advantage in their future workplace. Your students may be unaware of that benefit, however, and you may wish to tell them.
I have observed a very different relationship between Ghana, my home country, and the U.S. Our relationship with a teacher is very formal; we consider that teachers have the highest knowledge, so we are supposed to show our respect. On the other hand, American students consider the instructors as a colleague; they call teachers by their first name, which is not imaginable in my country.
– Padmore Agbemabiese, Instructor, Teaching & Learning, Ghana
The culture of the U.S. college classroom is also egalitarian and not authoritarian. An instructor's job is not to teach only the best and brightest, but instead to ensure that all students get the very best chance of doing well in the course. The challenge to any instructor is to be flexible and patient, and to vary the types of instructional strategies used in the classroom in order to meet the needs of different students with different learning styles.
Teaching styles can vary from instructor to instructor, and the types of learning activities may be influenced by an instructor's philosophy of teaching and learning or the academic discipline itself; nonetheless, class activities must be designed both to support the learning goals and to elicit students' interest and participation. While most students expect their classes to be lectures, many find such classes boring and respond with passivity. Some students will complain about being required to actively engage with material, but the research shows they are more likely to learn and to be motivated to learn by such work.
There is no quick and easy way for teachers to motivate their students. Some ideas for improving classroom participation and communication, as well as making dry material more exciting, are included in Classroom Strategies, as well as in How Students Learn. You will want to review these sections with this discussion of motivation in mind. In general, it is a good idea to vary your instructional strategies to reach as many students as possible. Using that approach, you will not bore the interested and/or bright students by going extremely slow, nor will slower students feel that the class is intended only for the academically gifted.
It is also important to assess your expectations for student performance. You may want to talk with colleagues who have taught your class in the past. They can share their experiences and help you determine whether you have realistic expectations.
To get to know your students in particular, you may consider asking them to fill out index cards on the first day of class, describing their reasons for taking the class, breadth of exposure to the field, and expectations about what you will teach them. Alternately, you may want to give them a short un-graded quiz or writing assignment to help you assess what knowledge they bring to your class. The more information you can gather, the more successful you will be.
I really think that international instructors have much more exposure to world affairs. When I talk to my students, it opens up their eyes to see a little bit beyond the U.S. in terms of cultural aspects and in terms of social, political aspects. I think that exposure is extremely important.
– Faculty member, EngineeringUnfamiliar accents can be problematic, especially if the listeners are less willing to go beyond the difference than problematize the difference. But the focus should be more on bringing your culture to the students in the U.S.A. and, from the students' point of view, on appreciating your contribution despite linguistic challenges.
– Chan Park, Faculty, East Asian Languages and Literatures, South KoreaI got lots of confidence from knowing that even though I have problems in language, I can still teach.
– Zhongxian Han, ITA, Mathematics, the People's Republic of China
As a non-native English speaking instructor, you may experience some level of anxiety and resulting unpleasant feelings as you have to speak in front of a group of students in a U.S. classroom for the first time. The possible anxiety you might have could have a negative effect on your teaching. Despite your difficulties, you may hesitate to share your concerns and emotional stress caused by language issues because of your position as an instructor. However, this language-related anxiety and possible emotional stress should be acknowledged, considered, and overcome to display your existing abilities to the fullest. This chapter provides an open discussion about possible emotional stress and anxiety related to language, and the possible symptoms and consequences you may experience as a nonnative English speaking instructor in U.S. classrooms. Practical strategies to cope with second language anxiety and to continue to improve general language skills are provided. There are other factors affecting your teaching such as interpersonal, intercultural, and pedagogical aspects, along with the linguistic aspect, but this chapter mainly focuses on the language issues.
Teaching at The Ohio State University is challenging to most new instructors, regardless of their linguistic and cultural background. They need to understand the academic culture and students of Ohio State to teach effectively. You, as an international instructor, have extra challenges. As a newcomer in the United States, you need to adjust to the U.S. culture, which could be different from your home culture. Additionally, you may experience emotional stress and anxiety caused by difficulties expressing yourself in English.
No matter how accomplished you are as a second language speaker, you are likely to experience at least some degree of anxiety over your own levels of language proficiency. Many new international instructors have reported some level of nervousness when they first start teaching in an English speaking country. Second language anxiety could be worse for those who still have difficulties expressing themselves in English, which they have learned as a foreign or second language.
Possible symptoms caused by second language anxiety include forgetfulness, avoidance of speaking the language, less interaction with people, negative self-image, lack of confidence, and feeling unsure of one's ability. Possible physical symptoms are sweaty palms, nervous stomachs, increased heartbeat and pulse rates, distortion of sounds, inability to reproduce the intonation and rhythm of the language, and avoiding eye contact. It is important to anticipate the symptoms you may experience to help you know how to cope with them.
Anxiety does not always necessarily affect you negatively, but excessive levels of anxiety can have a negative effect on you and your teaching. It can inhibit your ability to teach effectively. Sometimes you may even forget things you do know. Consequently, it causes you emotional stress and lower self-esteem and self-confidence. This lack of confidence is damaging because it sometimes prevents you from using your current ability and discovering your full potential. You may avoid eye contact with the students and have less interaction with them because of your nervousness. Your unnecessary level of anxiety can have a negative impact on your teaching, which in turn is detrimental to students' learning.
It is true that I am not a native speaker of English, and never will be. But the quality of teaching is not determined by whether you are a native speaker or a non-native speaker.... I believe that the language I speak and the way I teach could make a difference in the students' perception of me as a Chinese teaching English in the U.S. (p. 128-129).
Even when students complain about your accent, it is important to try and maintain a positive attitude. As a matter of fact, everyone has accent, everyone including the so-called native speakers. Students who have been more exposed to different languages, cultures, and geographies are better able to comprehend your message beyond accent. Communication requires not only a good tongue but also a good ear. The real issue here is what you do and what you plan to do for the students. This will eventually give way to communication and a sense of trust.
- Chan Park, Faculty, East Asian Languages and Literatures, South KoreaDon't apologize for not using the same words the students would use or not having the same background that they have. I think you should just come out with great confidence and say,'"I am teaching this class and I'm the instructor, and if you don't understand, come talk to me."
– Anne Collinson, ITA, History, Canada
Students want to help you. ... Every time I start with a class, I am going to say, "Correct me if my pronunciation is not correct."
– Zhongxian Han, ITA, Mathematics, the People's Republic of China
In terms of oral communication, I would say that you have to get involved in interacting in English to improve your speaking ability. I would say reading helps to some degree, but it is more practice, more really getting involved in your work and improving your listening comprehension.
– Faculty member, Engineering
If you think you want to take formal English classes, there are some courses available both in and outside of the university. For more information about classes on campus, you may contact the Spoken English Program (SEP) and ESL Composition Program. The American Language Program offers some courses in English for OSU students who want language instruction in addition to their academic coursework, as well as non-credit courses.
Free ESOL classes are available through the Columbus Literacy Council (Tel.: 221-5013, Email: columbusliteracy@columbusliteracy.org). Ohio State's Office of Continuing Education offers a non-credit course in English for a fee. There are only a few courses tailored for advanced English speakers like yourself, but it is still an option you may choose if you think it would work for you.
As discussed, new international instructors may have special needs and concerns related to language. The possible language anxiety as a second language speaker needs to be acknowledged, considered, and overcome in order to make the most of your existing ability. You need to accept your limitations and work on them, and at the same time consciously build upon your strengths. It is also important to remember that there are other important factors affecting your teaching you may need to focus on. Keep in mind that your success as a teacher depends on your efforts and ability to change attitudes. It is helpful to have a positive self-image as a second language speaker so that you can make the utmost use of your potential. Language can be an issue for international instructors, but you should not allow concerns about your language competence to inhibit you from exercising your academic expertise that will truly qualify you as a good teacher in academia.
Items preceded with an asterisk (*) can be found in the Younkin Success Center Library.
*Belcher, D. & Connor, U. (Eds.) (2001). Reflections on multi-literate lives. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.
This book details language learning experiences of eighteen highly successful second language users of various disciplines in academia. This book helps to understand how advanced second language literacy can be achieved through their struggles and success along the path to language learning.
Grascha, A. (1987). Short-term coping techniques for managing stress. In K. E. Eble (Series Ed.) & P. Seldin, (Vol. Ed.), New directions for teaching and learning: Vol. 29. Coping with faculty stress. (pp. 53-63). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Horwitz, E. (1996). Even teachers get the blues: recognizing and alleviating language teachers' feelings of foreign language anxiety, Foreign Language Annuals, 29, 365–372.
Though it was directed specifically to foreign language teachers, some of the tips provided here could be helpful to all nonnative English speaking teachers dealing with second language anxiety.
I did not sleep the night before the first day I taught in a U.S. classroom. I had to go over the lecture I had prepared many times (even then I was nervous when I got to class). When I walked into the classroom, I could almost hear the students say ‘not another international TA.' I was dreading making a mistake and felt that the students were just waiting for me to slip up. But then, after all, the students turned out to be very nice and friendly and made me feel a lot at ease.
– Ryan Pereira, ITA, Biochemistry, India
As they think about teaching their first class at The Ohio State University, international instructors often express concern about their own language and communication skills. Much of that concern may arise out of second language anxiety; some of it also grows out of expectations these instructors have regarding their role as teachers, expectations that can be intimidating. Like these instructors, you also might envision yourself standing alone in front of your U.S. classroom, assuming the role of the expert, and imparting knowledge to your class. You might be concerned that your students will be sitting back listening to you, judging your presentation, and noting your mistakes in English. But communicating in a U.S. university doesn't have to be this way; it shouldn't be this way. First of all, you should know that speaking perfect English is clearly not the deciding factor in successful teaching: every year, international TAs and faculty, with varying degrees of accent, are among Ohio State's winners of Distinguished Teaching Awards. Moreover, as research shows, effective teaching involves other dimensions besides simply providing information and speaking clearly. There are other skills and strategies you can learn to complement and enhance your classroom communication.
This chapter will (1) give you hands-on strategies for building and maintaining classroom communication as a two-way street; (2) help you identify and reflect on some important structural aspects of classroom language; (3) discuss the importance of checking and clarifying communication; and (4) direct you to further sources that will help you improve the communication between you and your students.
To minimize your "teaching" anxiety, it's useful to think about classroom communication as a two-way street: you and your students working together to create an active learning environment. You can begin the first day of class by motivating students to create, with you, that open environment and to remove any roadblocks to communication.
To open the way for two-way communication, first try shifting your attention to your students. If you focus on helping your class feel comfortable with you and confident that you care about communicating with them, you soon may find that you have forgotten about your own anxiety.
First, look at your students when you walk into your classroom and consider how they may be feeling. You may notice that some react with surprise when they learn that you are not from the United States. Others may feel anxious when they recognize that you are not a native speaker. You can help them feel welcome in your class and comfortable with you by greeting them with a smile and introducing yourself. Because your name and its spelling or pronunciation may be unfamiliar to your students, make sure you write it on the board and explain how to pronounce it. Tell your class on the first day what you would like them to call you. See Strategies for Classroom Interaction for ideas on how to introduce yourself and how to help your students feel comfortable in your class and interested in learning from you.
Next, and most importantly, talk to your students about your language. The first day of class is the time to discuss this. Talking openly about your English will help to relieve tensions or concerns students may have about it. But don't apologize. Do tell your students that English is not your native language and that you know, for example, that your pronunciation may sound different from theirs, that you may sometimes make grammar mistakes, or that you may occasionally use the wrong word. Some international instructors report that it also helps to tell their students how long they have been studying English and then to tell the students that they are looking forward to this opportunity to speak English with them.
I talk to them whenever possible and help them with any questions that they have. I let them help me with my English if I have a problem with pronunciation, spelling, grammar, etc.
– Linghai Zhang, ITA, Mathematics, The People's Republic of China
Demonstrate your interest in communicating with your students by telling them you would like to get to know them. The suggested tips and techniques in Strategies for Classroom Interaction will help you and your class enjoy this activity. As you introduce yourself and talk about your language and your commitment to successful communication, use non-verbal language to show your enthusiasm and your interest in working with them: smile, move around the room and toward your students. Check with them to make sure you are speaking loudly enough. Lean forward to listen when they speak to you. Most importantly, make eye contact. Move your eyes from student to student so that you include each of your students.
The techniques described above will go a long way toward encouraging students to feel comfortable in your classroom, to be confident that you care about their learning, and to accept differences in your spoken English and your classroom communication. It is true, however, that some undergraduate students have limited or no experience interacting with people from other cultures and may find accents different from their own foreign and hard to understand. Your accent may be the first thing they notice about you and one thing they continue to worry about. There are, however, several measures you can take now to promote communication—while your language is developing.
Speak at a moderate rate of speech and use effective pausing. This facilitates comprehension even of heavily accented speech. If you are used to speaking quickly or if you find native speakers asking you to slow down, you should probably reduce your rate of speech. Speaking at a moderate rate with appropriate pauses not only makes it easier for students to understand you, it also makes it easier for them to take notes. Speak at a steady but not fast rate, and make sure to pause briefly at the end of meaningful phrases. Make sure to tell your students to raise their hands and stop you if you are going too fast.
Speak with enough volume so that students in the back row of the classroom can hear you. Speaking loud enough, besides increasing students' ability to understand you, indicates energy and confidence. Do remind your students to raise their hands and tell you if they are having trouble hearing you.
Raise the pitch of your voice, as well as your volume, to emphasize important points for your students. Using speech dynamics (varying your volume, rate of speech, and pitch) can also show enthusiasm and generate interest of students. Native speakers of American English find it difficult to process a consistently flat pitch (or "monotone" delivery), and their ability to pay attention quickly lapses. The same content, presented with varied intonation patterns, will hold students' attention much better.
When I speak in English, I am very aware of the different communication patterns and behaviors in the U.S.A. I try to speak clearer, louder, and slower than when I speak in Korean. I found out that this helps others understand my foreign accent. After trying hard for several years, now I know that I can't change my accent in a short time and possibly never. Also, I don't think I need to change my Korean accent, BUT still I can be a good speaker of English as long as I am aware of the different ways of making my speech effective and use them.
– Soonhyang Kim, ITA, Teaching and Learning, South Korea
Research shows that appropriate intonation and emphasis on certain parts of a word or sentence (stress patterns) are more important than accurate production of consonants and vowels when it comes to helping U.S. undergraduates understand non-native speakers (Stevens, 1989). Intonation and stress patterns communicate grammatical and attitudinal meanings. Further, they direct the listeners' attention to important, new, or contrasting information and they signal the beginning and end of parts of your lessons. Thus, improving your intonation and stress patterns will help to structure the spoken information for your students and guide their learning.
To help you review intonation and stress patterns relevant to your teaching, you might want to ask your native English speaking colleagues in your department to record typed lessons or specific pages from a textbook in your field onto a tape. You can then practice at home, repeating parts of the lesson, imitating the speaker's stress and intonation. Pay attention to how the stress and intonation are used to emphasize important information and contrasts or to signal the beginning or ends of sections of the lessons. (You can ask your supervisor or a colleague for a copy of a lesson, choose lessons from a textbook or lab manual, or practice with a sample lesson from one of the ESL texts available online via the Spoken English Program.
Some field-specific vocabulary may be so new to some of your students that it sounds, in fact, like "a foreign language." If you struggle in pronouncing key technical terms or produce inaccurate representations, your students may not be able, even with extra processing time, to figure out what you said. And if they spend too much time trying to guess what you said, they will not be concentrating on what you have moved on to discuss next. Ask a colleague for a list of commonly used terms and expressions used in your field. You may also be able to find such terms listed in a glossary or index of an elementary textbook in your field. Lists of discipline-specific terms are included as well in Communicate: Strategies for International Teaching Assistants, by Smith, Meyers, and Burkhalter (1992). As with intonation, you can ask a native English speaker (e.g., a colleague or your TA supervisor in your field of study) to record this list onto a tape so that you can practice the correct pronunciation of these terms. It is also a good idea as you plan your lessons to list words you are not sure of, look up the pronunciation in the dictionary, or ask one of your colleagues, and then practice these words the night before you teach. Your efforts will be rewarded.
I always have difficulty saying "bioavailability," but I am working on it.
– ITA, Taiwan
If your students can anticipate pronunciation mistakes, they can adjust to them. For example, if you have trouble distinguishing between /l/ and /r/, tell your students, giving an example: "I am working on pronouncing English /r/s and /l/s, but I am still having some trouble. Sometimes I pronounce ‘loss' as ‘ross.' So if I say ‘profit and ross,' I hope you will understand what I mean." In general, it is also a good idea to write words that are difficult for you or new to the class on the board to provide a visual as well as the verbal representation.
If I am substituting /p/ for /f/, please let me know. I work hard with that but I still sometimes say "perm" for "firm" or "pactor" for "factor." I will write it on the board.
– ITA, South Korea
As mentioned earlier, classroom communication is a two-way street. It may be the case that, while your students are finding you generally easy to follow, you are having some difficulty understanding their spoken communication. One reason for this may be your students "casual speech" pronunciation, which may most likely include processes like reducing and linking. Reducing means modifying or omitting sounds or function words. (For example, you may hear the word "have" pronounced as "uv" or the word "them" pronounced as "em."). Linking means connecting or blending sounds across syllable boundaries. (You may hear, for example, "keep it" pronounced as "kee pit," "find out" pronounced as "fine doubt," or "an ice cream" pronounced as "a nice cream."). Examples of phrases containing both reducing and blending are "Izzybizzy?" (for "Is he busy?") and "taker out" (for either "take her out" or "take a route"). It is helpful to know that these changes are systematic, occur frequently in function words (e.g., prepositions, pronouns, auxiliary verbs and modals), and serve to make spoken English smooth and easier to pronounce. Rules to help you predict these "fast speech phenomena" (and examples) can be found in most pronunciation textbooks (see references at the end of this section). Recognizing a few very common reduced phrases, such as the following, will also give you a good start:
| Reduced phrase | Unreduced phrase |
| "gonna" | going to |
| "wanna" | want to |
| "hasta" | has to |
| "hafta" | have to |
| "cuduv" or "cuda" | could have |
| "wuduv" or "wuda" | would have |
| "mustuv" or "musta" | must have |
| "shuduv" or "shuda" | should have |
Notice the use of these phrases before a main verb, as in "gonna finish the report," "wuda turned it in," "musta missed that lecture." Here are some examples of questions and answers you might hear in your class. Can you figure out what is being said?
| Reduced | Unreduced |
| "Mi gonna hafta type the report?" | Am I going to have to type the report? |
| "Zat gonna be on the test?" | Is that going to be on the test? |
| "We shuda square dit." | We should have squared it. |
| "Wenze wanit?" | When does he want it? |
| "Zere gonna be a midterm?" | Is there going to be a midterm? |
| "D'we wanna carryitover?" | Do we want to carry it over? |
| "Givim the book." | Give him the book. |
Until you become familiar with the rapid, relaxed speech of your students, you can always ask them to repeat more slowly what they said. When they repeat the phrase, they will most likely produce more complete, unreduced forms. You can also try to familiarize yourself with common reduced phrases by practicing pronouncing them as your students do.
Especially if you are new to Ohio State, you may find some of your students' terms and expressions new and strange to you, for example, "pop quiz," which is a "surprise" quiz, one that is not announced. Other expressions such as "make-ups" and "grading on the curve" may be equally mystifying without a guide— even to native English speakers from outside of the United States.
English is my first language so language is not a problem. Unfortunately my students only speak "American," that is, educational jargon in the United States ... and pop culture references that at first, I had no idea what they were talking about.
– Robert Day, ITA, Zoology, Great Britain
One way to learn commonly used academic jargon is to underline all new expressions on your syllabus and ask an experienced native-speaking instructor to explain these terms to you. Lists of expressions and terms are often included in textbooks as well. Other good books are Teaching Matters, by Barnes & Finger (1990) and Communicate: Strategies for international teaching assistants, by Smith, Meyers, & Burkhalter (1992). Click here for a glossary of education jargon.
To maintain the two-way communication you have been building up, clear organization of information is as important as clear delivery. Some linguists, teacher educators, instructional development specialists, and experienced international instructors would say clear organization is more important than accurate English pronunciation and grammar. There are two obvious justifications for this position: first, the communication of even native English speakers breaks down when their organization of lessons is not clear to students; second, when international instructors provide clear organization and mark their transitions to effectively guide students through their lessons, this "discourse marking" generally compensates for less than perfect English. Discourse markers are the words and phrases used to show readers or listeners the relationships between parts of a text or talk. You probably use them all the time in your writing; try to plan how to use them in speech.
Macro-markers (longer, more explicit signaling phrases or sentences), in particular, are significantly easier to follow than simple transition words (e.g., "next," "for example," "so") and lead to increased comprehension. Macro-markers are italicized in the following examples:
"You may remember that last time we talked about the mean or arithmetic average."
"What I want to focus on next is another measure of central tendency, the mode."
"Let me give you an example to illustrate this position."
"When we analyze all of these issues we can come to the following conclusion."
Research shows that international instructors' presentations are rated more comprehensible when they mark their discourse more overtly and explicitly, for example, saying "Now let's move to the next point." International instructors who use fewer or less explicit signals or markers to guide students through their presentations are rated, unequivocally, as less comprehensible. These findings demonstrate the relatively greater role of discourse marking compared to linguistic accuracy in student comprehension of non-native speaking instructors' teaching.
Given the importance of signaling lecture organization, relationships among ideas, discourse boundaries, and the relative ease in learning to use them, you might want to consider a few strategies to make yourself more familiar with signaling devices. First, look at the textbook or lab manual you will be teaching from. Read through it, maybe with other instructors, and identify the discourse markers—both the simple transition words and the longer discourse markers, and try to identify the purpose of these transitional devices (e.g., to show importance or contrast, to signal a digression or a move back to the main point, to announce what you will discuss next) and note their frequency. You can also work with fellow instructors to make a list of phrases you could use to focus students on the objectives or movement of your lesson, e.g., starting a new topic, emphasizing an important point, giving an example, or moving on to another topic or step. To get you started, the following is a list of the more effective sentence-length discourse cues:
"In our last meeting, we discussed _________."
"Today we will talk about __________."
"I want to discuss four common characteristics."
"The first characteristic I want to talk about is __________."
"Let me give you an example."
"To get back to our main point, __________."
"Let's move on to ___________."
"As a general rule, __________."
"Let's look at the formula."
"Now let's plug in our given values."
It is also important to be organized when describing visual aids you might use, such as power point slides or overhead transparencies showing tables, charts, maps or diagrams, as well as simple blackboard drawings. For strategies to describe visual aids, including appropriate English phrases, click here.
International instructors report that it is also helpful to attend a class of an experienced instructor teaching the same course as you are currently teaching and listen carefully for signaling phrases and sentences. By listening, you will become more aware of their use, and it will be easier for you to incorporate these helpful signals into your own lessons.
Your efforts to speak and present your lessons clearly will generally prevent most communication breakdowns, and the openness you have established in the class should help you and your students to work together to surmount any obstacles that do arise. You can ensure, however, that any potential for language breakdown or minor misunderstanding gets repaired right away by simply checking frequently to see if your students are understanding you. A few expressions you can use to check with your students are:
"Is that clear?"
"Does anyone have any questions?"
"Should I repeat that?"
"Would you like me to go through that again?"
It is a good idea to check regularly for several reasons. First, students may not have heard you, they may not have understood you, or they may have misunderstood what you said and found it confusing. But they may find it easier to respond to your direct questions than to interrupt you to ask for repetition or restatement. Second, even though you have told them and encouraged them to stop you if they have any trouble understanding you, they may be busy taking notes, trying to figure out what you said, or trying to follow what you say next, and thus may not want to stop to ask a question. Third, your pausing briefly to check with students provides a break in the flow of information, giving any students who may be having difficulty an opening to let you know that your communication wasn't clear—and allowing extra processing or note-taking time for others. Finally, checking regularly—along with using clear markers of your organization—makes it easier for students to let you know precisely where you were in your discussion when a misunderstanding occurred: "I didn't catch that second term you were defining." or "When you gave the example, I missed a sentence."
When you check with your students, allow some time for students to respond. They may need time to formulate their question. And do use non-verbal language to make them feel that their comments and questions are welcome: make eye-contact with the questioner, lean your head toward, or walk forward toward the student. Very importantly, check back after you have repeated or answered: "Is that clear now?" "Did that clear up the misunderstanding?" When students look confused, it may be because the content is not clear. Testing checks ("OK, so what are the three steps we have to follow?") or guiding checks ("Who can give me an example now/practical application now of this principle?") can help you gauge students' understanding of content. See Strategies for Classroom Interaction for more ideas. See also Phrases for Improving Classroom Communication.
The fact that your students are asking questions, perhaps challenging your statements at times, is evidence that you are communicating with your class. Student questions are a sure sign that they are engaged. But to determine specifically how you are communicating, what they may still have some trouble with, or what you could still improve, it's a good idea to check with your class frequently. Ask your students how you are doing. Ask them for suggestions to improve communication. Some instructors pass out index cards a couple of times during the quarter and ask students to write down one or two things they really like or are finding useful about the class and one or two things they think could be improved. These instructors make a few comments about the response cards the next day, thank the students, and choose one or two goals to work on. Their students always speak positively about their instructors' sincere interest in developing open, two-way communication and an active learning environment.
Another action you can take is to consult with Faculty & TA Development. They will be happy to help you develop feedback forms or to come and observe your class or do mid-quarter evaluations for you and then meet with you to discuss them. Just as you sincerely want to help your students learn, most undergraduates will enjoy giving you feedback as well. Of course, it is always a good idea to stay in touch with your colleagues (or supervisor if you have one) who have taught the course you are teaching. In some departments, supervisors regularly observe instructors' classes and review student evaluations. Most departments annually review faculty teaching evaluations. If this does not happen automatically, you should make sure you ask for feedback. One last suggestion: you can ask your supervisor, a colleague, or the department chair about the possibility of observing the classes of another experienced instructor, and talking with them afterwards. This is a very interesting way to begin reflecting on your own classroom communication and to gain some new teaching and learning skills.
If you are specifically concerned about pronunciation, you can contact the Spoken English Program. Pronunciation tutors are available to meet with ITAs in 45-minute, one-to-one tutoring sessions one or two times per week. To take advantage of this service, ITAs first take the initial SPEAK test to determine level, strengths, and areas to improve upon, specifically, the sounds or intonation and stress patterns that are problematic. They can then choose to register for either one or two credits of independent study (Edu T&L 693P45) with a tutor and select a convenient time to meet. By state law, ITAs must have priority in Spoken English classes. For faculty and lecturers, individual consultation on speaking and presentation skills is also available (contact ftad@osu.edu).
Any international faculty member, employee, or student may also simply request a SPEAK test and a review to determine strengths, weaknesses, and specific areas to work on. Experienced spoken English instructors are available to make recommendations based on the SPEAK performance. Addressing individual needs, they will design a program for you so that you can practice using the listening lab and streamed materials on the Internet. International instructors may also choose to contact a pronunciation tutor on the Spoken English Program tutor lists to arrange for private instruction.
Regardless of whether you may be concerned about how well your students understand you, about how well you understand them, or about any other communication issue, it is important to get feedback from your students. Click here to read more on how to assess your teaching.
Chaudron, C., & Richards, J. (1986). The effect of discourse markers on the comprehension of lectures. Applied Linguistics, 7, 113 - 127.
Dauer, R. (1993). Accurate English: A complete course in pronunciation. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Regents/Prentice Hall.
Gilbert, J. (1993). Clear speech. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Hagen, S. (2000). Sound advice: A basis for listening. White Plains, NY: Pearson Education.
Pica T., Barnes, G., & Finger, A. (1990). Teaching matters. New York: Newbury House.
Smith, J., Meyers, C., & Burkhalter, A. (1992). Communicate: Strategies for international teaching assistants. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Regents/Prentice Hall.