Various teaching strategies can be applied for the purposes of engaging students in the learning process. An instructor who understands how and why to employ different strategies will be more successful at encouraging active learning, leveraging effective presentation skills, facilitating discussion, and managing the classroom—including potential problematic situations.
In order for students to learn, they must be actively engaged with the material. Faust & Paulson define active learning as "any learning activity engaged in by students in a classroom other than listening passively to an instructor's lecture. . . . [T]his includes everything from listening practices that help students absorb what they hear, to short writing exercises in which students react to lecture material, to complex group exercises in which students apply course material to 'real life' situations and/or new problems" (1998, p. 4).
Though a stand-alone lecture can be a useful tool for teaching, much of its success depends on the delivery style of the instructor as well as individual differences in student attention (Wilson & Korn, 2007, p. 88). On the other hand, it is generally true that student gains in thinking are facilitated if a class incorporates some or all of the following pedagogical components: "(1) student writing and discussion; (2) explicit emphasis on problem-solving procedures and methods using varied examples; (3) verbalization of methods and strategies to encourage development of metacognition; and (4) time to think and reflect" (McKeachie, 1999, p. 330). Therefore, it is recommended that instructors vary the types of activities they select for a class period. The "change-up" activities should directly relate to the material at hand and give the students the opportunity to practice the main concepts of the day.
In order for active learning to take place, instructors need to structure and organize classroom activities in a thoughtful way and to prepare students accordingly. It has been observed that in some cases the instructors tried to engage students in a classroom activity, but did not plan and implement the activity appropriately. As a result, the activity fell flat and students complained. Being discouraged, the temptation for the instructors was to then return to lecturing.
To avoid such situations from occurring, here are some suggestions for accomplishing a smooth transition. First, if students are accustomed to being passive in a class, they will have a harder time adjusting to being active than if they were asked to participate from the first day of class onward. Therefore, it is important to establish expectations for student active engagement at the very beginning and reinforce such expectations throughout the term. Secondly, it is important that the activities selected are clearly consistent with course goals and well constructed. Using group work with unclear tasks and unrealistic time frames is usually the cause of failure in implementation. Thirdly, both instructors and students must be patient with the changes required for active learning and the instructor must make moderate changes each time. Open communication about what is being attempted and why, along with frequent solicitation of feedback and refinement of the original plan, will help increase the possibility of success.
This section will discuss ways in which instructors can engage students actively through writing, discussion, lectures and cooperative and service learning methods.
Writing has been recognized as an important vehicle for individuals to not only communicate their ideas but also generate them. Writing, then, can be used as an effective tool for learning by creating occasions for students to fit new information into their knowledge base and to expand their thinking. The importance of writing in the thinking process implies that writing should occur in courses throughout the curriculum. The development of writing skills has been recognized as an essential accomplishment of a college graduate for which all instructors, not only those in the English department, have a responsibility to facilitate.
Many instructors from other fields, feeling that they have not had special training in the teaching of writing, are uneasy about the role they are expected to play. They are also reluctant to add the grading of great amounts of written work to their existing workload. Fortunately, experts in the teaching field are able to provide reassurance on both counts. The emphasis on writing as process stresses the role of the instructor as a facilitator of the thinking process rather than as "guardian of the semicolon," the technical expert on points of grammar. Suggestions for setting and responding to writing assignments in ways that engage students without creating excessive burdens on the instructor are also available. They revolve around two main thoughts:
1. Writing assignments need not be formal or lengthy. As a medium for actively engaging students in learning, writing can be used as a tool for discovery and understanding in an ongoing way that is integral to course activities. For example, an instructor might ask students to take a minute to write down their ideas before they respond to a question. The instructor might ask the students to write a short summary of what they learned in class or any questions that they still have about the material after class. Good writing assignments are meaningful, related to the goals of the course, clearly defined, and practical for both student and instructor.
2. Not all written work needs to be graded. In fact, instructors who give only formal writing assignments to be graded perpetuate the notion that writing is only an end product of learning, rather than a tool to be used in the process. Writing can be incorporated into the class to serve several different functions, including a feedback and class management tool for the instructor; a way of having students reflect back on their learning, themselves, and their audience; and a means of sharpening students' writing skills.
As a feedback device, the instructor can have students write an anonymous one-minute reaction paper at the end of class or after a particularly intense discussion to solicit input and to test for understanding. The results can be reported back to the class at the next session and/or incorporated into the course design.
Journals can help students reflect back on unresolved questions and conflicts raised for them in class and they can also assist students to see how they have grown during the course . These journals can also serve to personalize classroom learning if they are turned in periodically or at midterm for instructor comment or response.
To incorporate writing as an integral part of the learning process, instructors can suggest a variety of ways in which students can write as the course progresses. Ways that have been used effectively across courses include:
Instructors can ask students to keep journals to chronicle their understanding of texts that they are reading for class. Students can write entries that reflect the main idea of the reading, major points covered, and the questions that they have after reading the text. To increase the level of cognitive activity involved in the reading assignments, instructors can suggest that students write about possible applications of the ideas, ways in which the material fits with other course readings and information, and their critical evaluations of the merit of the ideas or readings. Instructors may elect to review these journals periodically, reacting to points that they find particularly interesting, or they may view the journals as personal aids to scholarship for the use of the students alone.
Instructors can ask students to write a very brief summary of the major points of a reading assignment or class session. Often, they may wish to specify a certain word limit, such as 25 words, in order to stretch students' language skills and cause further reflection on the material. Once again, these may be collected—they may serve as an attendance check or to motivate students to keep up with their reading—or they may be used only to help focus a discussion or for the students' personal use. When collected, they may be graded very quickly. Elaborate comments do not have to be given if the précis paragraphs are viewed as formative documents.
Instructors can ask students to jot down ideas very quickly in response to a given problem or stimulus. They should be encouraged to focus on generating ideas rather than worrying about the format that their writing takes. Brainstorming can be used prior to the introduction of new material to enhance discovery and curiosity. Instructors can ask students to guess the causes of a historical phenomenon before these are discussed in class; they may ask students to predict the results of a scientific experiment before it is demonstrated. The lists that result can be shared in groups or in class before the material is formally discussed. Brainstorming and freewriting can also be used as effective summarizing techniques. Students may be asked to compose "laundry lists" of things to remember when diagnosing a certain virus or characteristics of abstract art. They can compare lists to supplement their own with those of their classmates or to correct misinterpretations. Once again, these assignments are most effective when they are viewed as parts of the learning process rather than as end-point assessment devices.
Although the formal term paper can be a valuable learning activity for many courses, some instructors who once gave their students long research papers are discovering that assigning one or more five-page papers, usually requiring some sort of analysis of ideas or readings, is both easier to evaluate and more useful for their students' learning. To focus students' work, it is helpful to pose a direct question (e.g., "What problems do sociologists encounter in defining 'deviance'?") and convey as clearly as possible the instructor's expectations concerning the appropriate style and tone of the writing, the desired length, and the kind of documentation required. Exemplary papers from past offerings of the course can be made available for students to refer to. If the assignment calls for a prescribed format, such as a laboratory report, an outline of the format or examples of good lab reports will help the students. Students may also be encouraged to look in scholarly journals in the discipline for examples of writing to use as models. When longer papers are assigned, instructors have found that requiring drafts in advance of the final paper helps students to pace themselves better and gives the instructor a chance to provide direction while the ideas are still in process so that the resulting final papers are of higher quality. Drafts also give instructors the opportunity to note stylistic and grammatical problems for students to correct so that they learn about writing while they are engaged in a specific revision task. Drafts can also be posted on electronic mail exchanges so that students can receive advice from their peers while they are composing a paper.
The Center for the Study and Teaching of Writing (292-5607) has a variety of helpful publications for instructors on giving writing assignments and responding to them. Writing Center staff will also consult with faculty and teaching associates on these issues. Students can be referred to the Writing Center for individual help.
An effective way of promoting student active engagement in learning is to provide opportunities for students to process and verbalize what they are learning, so that instructors are able to determine to what extent students are internalizing the information and to provide pertinent feedback when it is most needed. Engaging students in discussing course content is one way to promote active learning. In addition, discussions can provide a socializing mechanism, examine and clarify confusing concepts, and foster critical thinking among students. In general, if used effectively, discussions can be invaluable for any of the following goals of instruction:
Well-defined objectives are an important prerequisite to a good discussion. They also help determine the kind of discussion appropriate for the situation. It helps to view discussions along a continuum from targeted discussions, where the instructor carefully controls the discussion and asks questions requiring specific responses, to open-ended discussions, where the instructor allows the students to formulate the questions and control the discussion. If the objective is to assess students' comprehension of course material or review or summarize content, targeted discussions will serve best. If the objective is to promote critical thinking, curiosity about the topic, or tolerance for opposing viewpoints, open-ended discussions are most appropriate. A key difference between a targeted and open-ended discussion is the kind of question asked. Questions asked in a targeted discussion are often structured to produce short, convergent responses. Questions in an open-ended discussion provide more latitude for response. Some examples are:
Targeted questions:
What is the definition of an adjective?
What are the stages of cell division?
Open-ended questions:
What are some ways we might solve the energy crisis?
Given the limited medical data provided, how would you approach diagnosing this patient's problem?
In a targeted discussion, the instructor tends to keep a fairly tight rein on the direction of the discussion. In addition to using convergent questions, the instructor can focus the discussion by intervening after each response to comment upon it, summarize it, or redirect the question; mapping the direction of the discussion on the blackboard or overhead transparency; limiting the duration and number of responses; and moving quickly from one question to another. In contrast, the instructor in an open-ended discussion would act differently by using broader questions, allowing ample time to respond, and encouraging a lateral rather than teacher-directed response pattern (e.g., "Does anyone have a comment on X's response?" or "Feel free to jump in and respond to each other"); and reducing his or her role as authority by sitting down or remaining quiet.
Although the type of discussion questions must be tied to the purpose of the discussion, there are findings to indicate that questions that are middle-range in their openness elicit the highest quality of frequency of response. John Andrews writes, "Perhaps the most important quality to grasp is a subtle blend of structure and freedom which gives a discussion momentum and yet does not let it wander indiscriminately" (1980, p. 147). In a study of questioning behaviors, he found that when instructors used what he called "playground" questions, i.e., questions that designate the intellectual sphere for discussion and then give students latitude for answering, they got better results than when they asked very open-ended "brainstorming" questions, convergent "quiz show" questions, or highly unfocused "general invitation" questions, such as "So what do you think about Plato?"
Students look for clues to an instructor's expectations for them in a number of ways on the first day. Therefore, instructors who emphasize that discussion will be an important part of the course should convey their expectations, set the tone during the first class by putting it into practice, and reinforce it throughout the course. Some instructors go on to define the criteria for receiving credit for class participation.
Establishing ground rules for discussions, especially in discussing multicultural or controversial issues, can be a way of building civility in class and having students take ownership in ensuring an environment conducive to learning. By gaining class consensus on ground rules, instructors can expect more student support and participation in their enforcement. Following are four suggested ground rules developed at the University of Washington:
Individual representation. Rather than stereotyping and making generalization about individuals from their same cultural groups, instructors can encourage students to present themselves as individuals instead of representing a cultural group by using "I" instead of "we" statements and speak of their own personal experience. Personalizing discussion invites diverse perspectives from students who often find themselves on the fringe of university life, such as gay, lesbian, and bisexual students; non-traditional-age students; and students of color. Instructors can ask students who tend to monopolize discussions to self-monitor and make room for quieter students. At the same time, instructors can encourage students who tend to be quieter to contribute and enhance learning by sharing their perspectives and experiences.
Confidentiality. Instructors can encourage students to take concepts and ideas from class and discuss them freely. However, they should make it clear to students that personal stories or issues shared by individual students should be kept confidential and the property of the class.
Respectful listening. Instructors can encourage students with differing points of view to have respect for each other and raise questions by listening first. Instructors can point out that if someone raises a point that others disagree with or find offensive, it is important to remember that the human being behind the question or comment deserves respect.
No put-downs. Tied to the notion of respect is the ground rule of no put-downs in class, not even the humorous variety. To put down one person often serves to discourage open and honest exchange of ideas among the whole group.
There are many different techniques for leading discussions, from the most nondirective to the most programmed. Here are some good ways to get discussions moving:
Start with a common experience. One way to launch a discussion is to begin with a concrete, common experience by a presentation, film, or role play, which illustrates the issues to be discussed. Following such a presentation the instructor can present to students the discussion questions such as, "What are your immediate reactions?" or "How did the film producers portray the Civil War?"
Start with a question. Another way to start a discussion is to ask a specific question that will enable students to contribute their thoughts in a brainstorming fashion. For example, a finance instructor planning to talk about personal investment can start with the question, "What do you know about investment?" Questions that speak well to students' puzzles can be obtained by asking students to submit written questions in advance. Once the first question has been asked and responded to, further questions come easily. The trick is to phrase the first question and present it as clearly as possible. In general, instructors can approach the first question in one of the following fashions:
Start with a controversy. One effective way to create a heated discussion is to pose a controversial issue and then ask students to respond by choosing a side and offering their rationale for their choice. One of the easiest ways to create controversy is to play devil's advocate. The instructor should clarify after the exercise that the position was taken for the purposes of discussion. To foster students' critical thinking skills, the instructor can ask students from each side to offer several reasons or arguments based on literature reading and personal experience, if applicable, then invite students from the opposing side to reflect on these arguments. It is very helpful for students' reference if the instructor can display these counter-arguments on the board.
Place students in buzz groups. In this format, a class is split into subgroups for a brief period to discuss a case or problem. Groups can be asked to come up with one hypothesis that they see as relevant, with one application of a principle, or an example of a point. In order to make this method effective, students must be given an explicit task and a designated time frame to work on the task. They should be instructed to prepare to report the discussion results to the entire class after small group discussions.
Ask for responses in writing. One way to enhance discussion quality is to give students some time to ponder and write down their response to the question before the discussion starts. Usually two to three minutes is ample for students to prepare their answers. It is very helpful for instructors to encourage students to be creative by using the writing as a chance to brainstorm. Then invite them to share their thoughts with the rest of the class. Often quiet students or non-native speakers of English will speak up if they have the words before them. Also, written responses often lead to more reflective discussions.
Managing discussions often means dealing as smoothly as possible with the problems that arise. Here are some common problems with suggestions for how to deal with them:
Students who talk too much. It is almost inevitable that in each class there are students who tend to talk too much and dominate discussions, which can have a negative impact on the participation of other students. One way to approach the talkative students is to avoid looking in their direction or to structure the discussion in such a way that precludes those individuals' constant participation. For instance, instructor can signal their over-participation by saying, "Let's hear from someone who has not yet contributed" or "Someone else other than So-and-So." Some instructors use color-coded chips to control participation. In such cases, each student is given several chances to speak during class. Once a student uses up his/her chips, s/he has to withhold her/his participation until others have used up their chips. Another coping technique is to talk to the dominant students individually outside of class, bring the issue to their attention, and ask them to self-monitor their participation.
Students who will not talk. In each class there are also inevitably students who will not talk during discussions for various reasons. Instructors who expect inclusive participation need to set clear expectations and structure the class in a way that encourages these students to be involved. It is also important to reinforce participation by using different strategies, such as combining voluntary participation with rotating calling on students. One way to approach non-participating students is to organize small group activities, in which these students are more likely to participate. Smaller groups may help put these students more at ease. Another strategy is to occasionally ask them opinion questions (e.g., "How do you feel about this?"). This may encourage participation by reducing students' fear of answering incorrectly. Yet another strategy is, as mentioned above, to have students write out their answers to a question before calling on them. Having the words written out may make it easier for a shy or fearful person to speak up.
The discussion that turns into a heated argument. During discussions different viewpoints can become heated and turn into conflicts. If such conflicts are left unattended, they may cause continuing trouble.
Here are some ways to resolve them:
Unclear comments or hesitant participation.The instructor can encourage students who have made unclear or confusing comments to give examples or reiterate their viewpoints for clarification or verification. They can encourage students who are hesitant to participate through enthusiastic nonverbal cues and patience, or asking for elaboration and examples at appropriate points.
The discussion that goes off track.To keep discussions from going off track, some instructors put discussion questions or issues they want to concentrate on the board or summarizing the discussion on the board as it proceeds. Stopping and asking a student to summarize where the discussion is at the point it appears to go off track may also help.
The student who aggressively argues with the instructor.When students argue for the sake of argument, instructors will almost always lose if they take the bait. This situation often occurs when instructors are going over exams or assignments. Students who attack usually want attention, so simply giving them some recognition while firmly moving on often takes care of the problem. If students are simply trying to embarrass the instructor, they may seek to make him or her defensive with such comments as, "How do you really know that . . . ?" or "You're not really saying that . . . ?" Such questions can be handled by playing boomerang. The instructor might say, "What I'm saying is . . . , but now I'd like you to share your perspective." Turning the question back to the questioner forces him or her to take responsibility for his or her opinion. Other ways to handle these situations include:
Confrontation. Instructors can confront the questioner with their reactions to his or her behavior. "I am uncomfortable with the indirectness of your questions. What I really hear you saying is...."
Active listening. Instructors can paraphrase the message they heard and check out the accuracy of their assumptions before responding.
Locating. Instructors can ask the questioner to explain the context behind the question.
Reframing. The focus can be on clarifying the assumptions behind the person's argument and then inviting her or him to see alternative possibilities. "Your argument is premised on the idea that people cannot be trusted. How would you restructure your position to reflect the assumption that people can be trusted?"
Deferring. Often, the best strategy is to invite students to come up after class and arrange for a time to talk about the disagreement further.
Perhaps nothing is more important to a healthy discussion than good rapport between the instructor and students. Many students test the waters in discussions to see how their ideas will be accepted: if the instructor lacks sensitivity, they may become unwilling to contribute. Some behaviors on the part of the instructor (and students) that promote the establishment of good rapport for discussions include:
Perhaps the most important steps to building rapport are taken on the first day of class.
During a discussion the instructor can promote an atmosphere of trust and rapport by offering some of the following questions or comments:
Nonverbal ways in which an instructor can create rapport during a discussion include:
Good discussions end with a summary so that students will be reminded what important points have been explored. The advantage of active learning techniques such as the discussion is that students have the opportunity to verbalize course materials for themselves and receive feedback in class from the instructor on how well they understand the material. In addition to showing students why the discussion was important to their learning, a summary provides the opportunity to fill in points that were not covered and to praise the class for the quality of their responses.
Effective lecturers combine the talents of scholar, writer, producer, comedian, showman, and teacher in ways that contribute to student learning.
—W. J. McKeachie
Lecturing is probably the oldest and still most commonly used teaching method in the American college classrooms. It is recognized for the following strengths:
However, with the increasing availability of information via various media, particularly through the Internet, attending lectures is no longer considered by many students as the main way to obtain new information. Another challenge instructors face today is the diverse learning styles or preferences of today's students. For many of them, passively listening to lectures is not conducive to their learning. Furthermore, researchers and an increasing number of instructors have identified the following weaknesses of traditional didactic lectures:
Bonwell (1995) also has the following observations:
Given the strengths and weaknesses of lecturing, while planning a course or class period instructors should consider if the lecture approach is the best way to present the content for achieving instructional goals. Lecturing is very appropriate for some goals and very inappropriate for others.
When preparing a lecture, it is helpful for instructors to keep in mind that the learners' minds are not blank slates. Therefore, the lecture should build on students' existing knowledge. It is also helpful to think carefully about the learning goals for students and how the lecture can help achieve these goals. Barbara Davis (1993) suggests the following general strategies on preparing a lecture:
Be comfortable with the instructional material. This includes reviewing the related course materials, reading lists of colleagues who have taught the course before, and thinking of questions you may want to ask students or anticipate from students. If possible, sit in the same class taught by an experienced instructor to see how he or she organizes the content and student activities.
Do not plan to lecture for the full period. Since the attention span of the average student is limited to increments of 10-15 minutes, it is pedagogically desirable to change the format of lecture every so often, so that students will remain attentive. Therefore, plan on mini lectures interspersed with brief student activities, such as questions and answers or inviting students to share related examples or personal experience.
Be clear about what can reasonably be accomplished by lecturing. While planning to use the lecture mainly for transmitting basic factual information, the instructor should try to demonstrate higher level information processes, such as analysis, synthesis, clarification, comparison, and contrast.
There are various ways to start a lecture. A thoughtful introduction can instantly capture the interest of the audience. As with a good drama, an effective lecture "hooks" the listeners' attention from the start. It can also help students discriminate between more and less important issues of the major topic and create realistic expectations about what they are supposed to learn from the lecture. The experience of effective instructors suggests that a good way to start the lecture is to point to a gap between students' knowledge base and the content to be presented in order to arouse their curiosity.
The following are some suggestions for starting a lecture:
Raise a question to be answered by the end of the hour.
Example: "How did the U.S obtain its leadership role during World War II? This is the question we hope to answer during this session."
Explain the relationship of the lecture content to professional career interests, the real world, etc.
Example: "Today's lecture is about the cost of living indices, a topic in macroeconomics that should help you understand the recent discussions in Congress related to inflation."
Relate lecture content to previous class material.
Example: "Last week we focused on the history of live theater. Today, we'll be looking at film history, and spend the rest of the week comparing the two forms."
Tell students how they are expected to use the lecture material.
Example: "Today, I'll offer a specific model of evaluation and illustrate its applicability in several different settings. When you meet in your discussion groups later this week, you'll be asked to apply the model as you discuss the Brown versus the Board of Education decision."
Some other ways to start a lecture include:
Avoid a "cold start." Arrive at class early and interact with students informally.
Minimize nervousness. Take a deep breath before you begin the class, or tighten and then release your body muscles.
Grab students' attention with your opening. Open the session with a provocative question, startling statement, striking example, unusual analogy, personal anecdote, dramatic contrast, powerful quote, short questionnaire, demonstration, or refer to one of the recent news events. Try to avoid using the same type of opening repeatedly.
Announce the objectives for the class. Tell students what is expected to be accomplished during class and list the agenda on the board. This approach can provide a "road map" to them and help stimulate their interest.
Effective organization of the lecture can help students understand the way in which the points are organized. Besides verbally introducing the topics of the day, it has been proven to be a good idea to write them on the board or an overhead projector for students as a "road map."
Organizing the lecture can be done in a number of different ways, depending on the subject matter itself, as well as the lecturer's personal approach. Barbara Davis (1993) suggests that, after deciding on the topics to present during a lecture, the instructor can organize them according to one of the following methods:
Topical: A psychology class that examines how four groups of theorists approach human it depends on each individual instructor. According to Ruth Day (1980), lecture notes vary widely as to the amount of information they directly display, the extent to which they rely on overt organization structures, and the general formats they choose to use. Following are some commonly shared lecture note formats:
Verbatim Notes. This format entails a verbatim script of the entire lecture, which appears to be a common practice among new instructors. One advantage of this approach is that, with detailed information displayed in written form in front of them, instructors can reduce the number and complexity of things they need to think about while lecturing, therefore feeling more comfortable and confident. This is particularly important for beginning teachers. However, according to Day, one drawback to this approach is that the lecturer tends to rely heavily on the lecture notes and tends to read instead of talking more naturally. In addition, preparing this type of lecture notes is usually very time consuming. It also discourages students from asking questions and making comments during the lecture, since the instructor is usually concentrated on the lecture notes instead of looking at students and interacting with them. Another disadvantage of using such lecture notes is that instructors tend to confine themselves behind the podium instead of moving around and getting close to students.
Outlining. As instructors become more experienced and familiar with course materials, many become progressively less reliant on lecture notes, therefore streamlining the notes. One such lecture note format is outlining. The instructor improvises the lecture based on notes which contain only the highlights of the content in simple words or phrases. As a result, the instructor tends to be more focused on presenting the concepts and ideas instead of individual words. He or she also tends to be more flexible and talk more naturally instead of reading the lecture notes. Furthermore, the instructor who uses outlines usually moves around instead of remaining tied to the podium. There are disadvantages of using such lecture notes, though. If the instructor is not very fluent in front of an audience, mental and verbal fumbling may result. There is also an increased danger of not making the points of connection clear to the students. Some lecturers simply jot down the major points in the order they want to discuss them. The advantages are similar to the outline approach, but there is a danger of forgetting why a specific phrase or example was included. This method necessitates a very firm grasp of the material.
Nonlinguistic Formats. An alternative to the linguistic formats is the use of "tree" diagrams, computer flowcharts, concept maps, and the like. Another choice is a pictorial format, which includes all nonlinguistic symbols to be found in lecture notes. Nonlinguistic formats carry similar disadvantages and potential problems as the other non-verbatim forms of notes already discussed.
Instructors need to clarify what purposes their lecture notes serve and whether they prefer to work with linguistic or nonlinguistic notations. Once the format is chosen, the instructor may wish to examine the other possibilities to determine if they can be combined to produce a more useful and appropriate format. Typically, a lecturer teaching for the first time will use comprehensive notes, which will become progressively briefer as the instructor becomes more familiar with the material and gains confidence. For many new teachers, the first time lecturing can be less nerve-racking if the lecture is clearly mapped out on paper beforehand.
However well structured and carefully prepared a given lecture may be, the importance of the way in which it is delivered cannot be overemphasized. Most people agree that a lecture with excellent content can easily be ruined by poor presentation. It is crucial to grab the attention of students and to retain it throughout the class. For many students, memorable lectures are those presented by instructors with effective presentation skills. The following are some observations made by experienced lecturers on effective presentation skills.
After presenting a lecture or a large amount of information, instructors can engage students in active processing of information by pairing them up and giving them two to three minutes to react, respond, or raise questions or issues about the material just presented. They can ask for volunteers to reiterate the issues or questions raised in their dyads.
Bonwell (1995) advocates the concept of an "enhanced lecture," which incorporates mini-lecturers and student activities. He suggests that the following student activities can be used in an enhanced lecture:
Low Risk Activities
High Risk Activities
It is very helpful to solicit and respond to student feedback during a lecture. Here are some practical suggestions:
Although large classes present special challenges for active learning, they do not have to be strictly presentational. Even though in many cases large lecture courses provide for discussion or recitation sessions to be held at intervals, the lecture itself does not have to be a totally passive experience. In fact, given studies that suggest that most learners cannot attend well to lecture content for more than fifteen minutes, it becomes incumbent on the lecturer to build "change of pace" strategies into the design of each class. Lectures can be broken into segments simply by stopping and asking for discussion at given intervals. When content coverage is an anxiety, the strategies for targeted instruction listed earlier in this chapter are more appropriate than open-ended discussion strategies.
Jim Eison (1999) has generated a list of possible low-risk active learning activities for large classes. Following are some of them:
McKeachie (1999) points out that the way in which the instructor ends a lecture is very important. The instructor can use the opportunity to reinforce the major issues being discussed during the lecture. Possible ways to end the lecture include:
One disturbing phenomenon which instructors commonly experience at the end of a lecture session is that some students start packing bags, talking, or standing up and leaving several minutes before the class is over, which significantly distracts other students and the instructor. A coping strategy is to make it clear at the beginning of the course that such behaviors are not welcome. For instance, one instructor conveys the following expectation to students early on in class, "I will keep my promise to end promptly at the bell, but you must keep yours to not disrupt the class by preparing to leave early."
Many of the strategies discussed in this chapter involve having students work in groups of two or more to help each other learn. Commonly identified as cooperative learning (often interchangeably called collaborative learning or peer teaching), this teaching technique is different from conventional pedagogical approaches in five ways. It fosters students' face-to-face interaction, interpersonal and small group skills, group processing, individual accountability and personal responsibility, and positive interdependence. The benefits of cooperative learning have been recognized in many research findings over the past decade, particularly by Johnson, Johnson, and Smith (1991) and Bruffee (1993). They have identified that the beneficial outcomes of cooperative efforts include positive interdependence, promotive interaction, positive relationship, psychological adjustment and social competence, and effort to achieve. In addition, cooperative learning gives students the opportunity to affirm their learning through teaching others ("To teach is to learn twice") and provides students with other styles of teaching that may be more accessible to them.
In addition to the works by Johnson, Johnson, and Smith and Bruffee, the recent Collaborative Learning: A Sourcebook for Higher Education, Volumes I and II, published by the National Center for Postsecondary Teaching, Learning, and Assessment (1993-94), contain many descriptions of specific approaches to cooperative learning. A few commonly used approaches are introduced below.
Classes can be divided into groups of about five students with a mixture of more and less knowledgeable students in each group. The groups are given learning tasks that will require them to share knowledge and experiences. The task may be to answer some review questions, pose some critical issues about a topic, solve a problem, apply some principles, or create a product. If the groups are balanced well, the task is clearly outlined, and the allocated time is appropriate for the task, the group will engage in peer learning and increase their abilities to function in an interpersonal setting through the process. The instructor's role is to serve as designer by carefully structuring the groups and tasks and to serve as facilitator while the groups are working, helping with interpersonal or task-related problems as they arise.
The use of problem solving as a strategy for active engagement and practice has been a traditional part of courses in such fields as mathematics and physics (Woods, 1994) and has now extended to other fields as well. The problem solving approach involves structuring learning around some central questions or typical practical cases in the discipline. Often, however, the instructor's task is more elaborate than simply devising good problems. An essential part of helping students to solve problems is the creation of an affective climate that is conducive to risk-taking and the free exchange of ideas. Direct instruction in the techniques of problem solving is also often required for students who have not had much problem-solving experience. The instructor will need to model how professionals in the field go about defining problems, gathering data, generating hypotheses, and supporting conclusions or solutions. In addition, researchers in teaching problem solving have found that helping students be aware of their problem-solving strategies is a characteristic of effective teachers. Often, having students "talk through" a problem out loud or work in pairs or groups increases their problem-solving skills.
An ineffective way to approach teaching problem solving, which happens more often than desired, is for the instructor to do all the problem solving. While modeling is important, it is also important for students to try to apply their skills while the instructor is there to monitor their work and offer them assistance. Stephen Monk (1983), a mathematics instructor, observed of a class that he taught, "My TAs and I spent all the course time telling students how we did mathematics. Their job was to imitate us when they did the homework. The message was that learning was to take place not on course time but on their own time, away from the teachers and away from one another."
A very effective way to teach is an instructor demonstration of a particular problem-solving approach immediately followed by an opportunity for students to try a similar problem. Students can be asked to come to the board or overhead to show the steps they used, to switch papers with another student and compare work, or to list aloud the steps they used and the solution they reached. The results will be much better than a prolonged demonstration during which the instructor is repeatedly solving the problems him or herself.
Very broadly defined, a case study is a teaching instrument that portrays a real life situation for student analysis. Case studies are used frequently in professional schools to enable students to develop their skills in analyzing situations and making sound decisions, but cases are becoming very popular in other divisions as well. Often, a prepared case can be used, but when new cases are developed, the instructor should focus on an important dilemma or issue, create enough detail for the students to comprehend the case, and choose a situation about which there is room for debate and several possible courses of action. Students are asked to read the case before class. During the class session, the instructor first makes sure that the students understand the details of the case, then leads them through an analysis of the problem and discussion of possible alternative courses of action. The instructor serves as discussion facilitator, probing for detail, support for arguments, evidence, and the generation and critique of solutions.
Learning cells are a variety of peer learning that can be used when it is important to have students verbalize what they have read. Reading assignments are given before class and part of class time is spent with students in pairs telling each other what they read. Students may have read the same material beforehand, in which case they are demonstrating their comprehension and recall and getting an opportunity to clarify their understanding with one another, or they may have been assigned different readings, in which case they can complement each other's knowledge with some different information or perspectives.
In a discovery or inquiry format, the instructor sets up a novel situation, an interesting puzzle, or an open-ended question that students are asked to explore using their own creativity and resources. They may be asked to hypothesize, based on only partial information, on what building materials were used to construct an ancient building; they may be asked to construct a device for measuring something or making certain musical tones; or they may be asked to interview each other about what triggers depression in their lives. The instructor once again serves as designer of the activity, choosing activities that are likely to lead students to accomplish a learning goal, and as facilitator during the process, helping students stay on course and locate the resources they need. In the discovery format it is important for the instructor to stay as nondirective as possible so that students develop independence and personal excitement.
In many courses, role playing can be used to develop empathy; to enliven a historical, philosophical, or literary topic; or to provide a concrete enactment of an abstract topic. Volunteers are asked to portray certain roles and given sufficient information on the context to enable them to improvise dialogue and actions. In some classes, the instructors have attended class in the role of a character and have enlisted colleagues to join them in enacting a situation for the students. The class is asked to play the role of those in the situation as well, asking questions or engaging in dialogue in ways that would be appropriate for the setting. Role playing is not limited to classes in the humanities or social sciences: creative instructors in the physical sciences have used students to model DNA or demonstrate chemical bonding by joining students together in the appropriate configuration.
Using a central aisle or a real or imaginary boundary to divide the class space in half, the instructor poses a debatable proposition and asks those who agree to sit in one section and those who disagree to sit in the other. (The instructor may also want to create a third section for those who are undecided.) The instructor then moderates, asking students from one section, then the other, to support their position. At set intervals of perhaps fifteen minutes, students are given the opportunity to move to another section, based on whether they have changed their positions through listening and participating in the debate. A variant on this theme is to have students argue for the opposite of their original positions by changing the section designations after the students have already chosen positions. The instructor is responsible for setting up the proposition, enforcing the rules of the debate, and summarizing the discussion and results of the debate. More formal and elaborate variants of debates involve multiple weeks of preparation by students and can represent part of the final grade.
Simulations allow students to engage in learning activities that may otherwise be too time consuming, too expensive, or ethically questionable (requiring animals or requiring intervention into human behavior). Using an established game or computer software or creating a scenario, the instructor develops a simulated environment within which students will engage in activity directed toward a learning goal. They may be asked to set up companies and create mergers; they may be asked to develop marketing packages that they will present to a real or simulated client; they may be blindfolded to experience sightlessness; or they may be required to recreate a military battle or other historical event using a new strategy. The role of the instructor is to identify and preview established simulations for use in the course or to create scenarios that are likely to engage students in experiential learning directed toward a course goal. During the simulation, the instructor serves as a facilitator.
Problem-based learning (PBL) is a technique that is characterized by using real-world problems as a context for students to learn critical thinking and problem-solving skills. John Curry of Ohio State College of Medicine points out that PBL is different from the traditional (passive) ways of presenting the content to students in the following ways. It substitutes active, student-centered, team-oriented learning of information for the passive delivery of course content by the instructor. It emphasizes learning within the context that the learned information is to be used rather than memorization of isolated facts. It incorporates the development of skills required to use the learned information as a part of the learning process.
In a PBL setting, students are presented with a problem (e.g., case, video tape, research paper, news of the day). They are placed in small groups, organize their ideas and existing knowledge related to the problem, and attempt to define the nature of the problem. They discuss the problem and possible solutions by identifying learning issues, i.e., aspects they do not have knowledge of and need to in order to solve the problem. They then rank the learning issues in order of importance and distribute learning tasks among group members. When the groups reconvene, group members share their newly learned knowledge with each other and generate synthesized solutions to the problem. If needed, they repeat the process until the problem is satisfactorily solved.
The role of the instructor in PBL is that of a "guide on the side" rather than a "sage on the stage." He or she guides, probes, and supports students' initiatives. Instead of lecturing, directing, or providing easy solutions, the instructor uses the Socratic approach and guides students by asking them questions to clarify, verify or further students' pursue of needed knowledge.
Cooperative learning requires good planning in order to be successful. First, group work as a learning strategy must be appropriate for the course objective. Second, the group task must be clearly outlined, feasible, and relevant to the course objectives. It often helps to provide students with an explicit rationale for group work. Third, group membership must be determined carefully and positive social interaction within the group must be maintained. Often, instructors assign groups based on instructor awareness of student abilities or social skills. Some teachers assign specific roles, such as task director, time keeper, social monitor, and reporter to group members. Fourth, group work must be assessed appropriately. Some instructors ask students to rate each other's performance and some ask for self-evaluation. Most give students some combination of individual and group grade, although for some tasks, one or the other is chosen.
More information on problem-based learning can be obtained from Faculty and TA Development.
The late Ernest Boyer called upon institutions of higher education to become more vigorous partners with local communities in resolving social problems through what he termed a "scholarship of engagement" (Boyer, 1990). Service-learning is a newly emerged teaching approach that provides one way for universities and colleges to fulfil their obligations to prepare good citizens. It is also regarded as an effective strategy for enhancing student learning, improving the quality of the student experience, and increasing higher education's visibility and responsiveness to the local community. More specifically, service-learning promotes the development of cognitive complexity, citizenship skills, social responsibility, and active learning while responding to pressing issues and needs in the larger society.
While many definitions of service-learning appear in the literature, an emphasis on active learning, reciprocity, and reflection is common to all. Effective service-learning includes the following elements:
More specifically, Rhoads and Howard (1998) define academic service-learning as "a pedagogical model that intentionally integrates academic learning and relevant community service" (p. 1). Implicit in this definition are the following dimensions:
Designing service-learning courses takes time and depends upon relationships and partnerships with appropriate community service site placements. While shown to be an effective teaching strategy, service-learning is not appropriate for all courses. Instructors who plan to teach service-learning courses by integrating community service into the design of academic courses need to contemplate the following questions:
How can service be integrated into this course and used as a "text" to enhance understanding of this particular discipline? (It is important to think about the service component of any class not as an add-on requirement but as integral to the teaching of course content and achieving course objectives.)
Establishing a relationship of trust between an instructor and community partner is a necessary and important dimension of service-learning. Instructors need to be prepared to invest time for collaborative planning of appropriate placements. Further, the concept of reciprocity is integral to effective and responsible service-learning. Reciprocity implies that the service provided in the context of a course is a needed service, determined by the community with whom students will be engaging.
Successful service-learning requires purposeful planning by both the instructor and community partners. All partners prior to the course should reach mutual agreement on responsibilities and outcomes of the service placement. Planning involves discussion about goals and needs of all partners as well as appropriate tasks and activities for students on-site. Sensitivity to resources and constraints of the community organization is important to effective partnerships. Development of a partnership for a service-learning experience necessarily involves viewing the benefits and costs from the perspective of the participating organizations. While an influx of student volunteers is helpful to organizations, it also imposes the burden of additional training and supervision on the part of usually short-staffed agencies and schools. Agreement about orientation, training, and supervision should also be discussed.
Sustaining authentic and effective partnerships requires on-going involvement and monitoring on the part of teachers and community partners. Regular meetings with community site staff help assess the quality of the experience for both students and community as well as provide an opportunity to resolve problems as they arise. A sustainable partnership is one that matches up the academic strengths and goals of the university with the assets and interests of a particular community.
Thorough orientation of students to the community organizations is essential to a well-orchestrated service-learning course. Students may be introduced to people, issues, and communities with whom they are unfamiliar. Good intentions alone are not enough to ensure that students approach new environments with respect and courtesy for those with whom they may come into contact. Preparation should include an orientation to the site, volunteer expectations, and knowledge about the issues that students will encounter on-site.
Reflection is generally considered the means by which learning is connected to service. The learning in service-learning evolves, in part, through structured activities designed to facilitate thinking about the service experience. In short, reflection insures the connection between thinking and doing, service and learning. Eyler, Giles, and Schmiede (1996) concluded from their research on the use of reflection in service-learning that effective critical reflection is:
Continuous: an on-going part of learning in the course that provides continuity through each event or experience; reflection occurs before, during, and after the experience
Connected: the link between service and the intellectual and academic interests of students, resulting in the synthesis of action and thought
Challenging: an intervention to engage students in issues in a broader, more critical way; reflection pushes students to think in new ways
Contextualized: appropriate for the setting and context of a particular service-learning course or program; reflection corresponds in a meaningful way to the topics and experiences that form material for reflection
One way to generate reflection is through student journals. For example, instructors ask students to reflect on fears and concerns about the service assignment; initial reactions to the site, work accomplished, people, and setting; ideas about the causes of the issues they observe at their community site; their source of knowledge about the issues; and connections between course concepts, skills learned, and service activity. Reflection involves more than simply recounting or describing experiences, but should help students connect their experiences to larger issues through critical analysis.
Assessing student learning gained through a service component of a course may occur through written assignments such as reflective journals, class discussions, and other traditional means of assessing performance. It is important to evaluate and grade the learning outcomes from service experiences rather than the service itself. Some instructors also include an evaluation of student performance on site completed by the community service site supervisor. It is important to include evaluation criteria and assessment methods on course syllabi.
In evaluating the service-learning component of a course, it is important to consider goals for all partners in the service-learning activity: students, institution, and community. Instructors may have their own perspective on how well goals were accomplished but also ask for the feedback of students and community participants as well as suggestions for change.
Other university resources may be helpful in locating community sites and in providing additional information about service-learning in higher education and at Ohio State. Campus Collaborative is an organization of over 40 academic and administrative units at Ohio State. One of the goals of the collaborative is to increase the numbers of instructors, staff, and students engaged in community-based teaching and inquiry. Among other opportunities, Campus Collaborative funds faculty seed grants for community-based teaching and research projects. More information is available on the Campus Collaborative website (http://www.osu.edu/campuscollab). Project Community works with students interested in community service as well as with a number of community service agencies in Columbus. They have a database of community service organizations interested in Ohio State volunteers. More information is available at the Project Community website (http://www.osu.edu/student-activities/news/projcomm.htm). The Service-Learning Scholars Roundtable (SLSR) is a group of instructors who meet monthly to discuss issues involved in service-learning as well as share their own experiences with community-based scholarship.
While many university instructors teach only in the way in which they were taught, there exists a wide array of pedagogies with which to engage students. Some disciplines or areas of content seem to fit a specific mode more easily than others. However, it is important to remember that students vary in terms of both the learning styles that they prefer and the range of learning strategies they command. Therefore, it is important to vary the modes of teaching to allow different students a way of connecting to the material, as well as to teach new learning strategies explicitly to expand students' repertoire. This chapter provides a basic overview of some of the available teaching techniques; FTAD has many resources on these and other techniques available to help instructors broaden their own set of teaching tools.